By Amber Craig
In The Two Gentlemen of Verona and The Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare offers two distinct renditions of the relationship between young ladies and their waiting women. The conversations between Nerissa and Portia, and Lucetta and Julia respectively, are crucial in the advancement of the love plot in both plays as they “promote the major love affair” necessary to satisfy the conventions of a Romantic Comedy (Draper 269). The primary distinction between these relationships, however, is rooted in Shakespeare’s commitment to the complexification of character in his later work, which includes an amplification of “the Feminine” (Schavrien 207). Shakespeare’s centralisation of Nerissa as a character in The Merchant of Venice, and the sudden, but inevitable, discarding of Lucetta in The Two Gentlemen of Verona, exemplifies the shift in Shakespeare’s late style as he turned to focus on characters’ interiority, especially that of minor characters, rather than their capacity to facilitate and advance a plot.
In his essay, Draper suggests that Lucetta can be read as a “preliminary study for Nerissa” as reflected in the materiality of both texts (Draper 257). Both plays contextualise the love plot through a conversation between the ladies and their waiting woman in the early stages of the story. In The Two Gentlemen of Verona, the audience witnesses Lucetta advising Julia on whom she should court. Julia lists off each potential suitor, and Lucetta offers witty quips about each man, stating that Mercutio’s “wealth” is “well” but she does not think much of him, and that while Sir Egalmour is “well-spoken,” he is not quite good enough for Julia (Two Gentlemen 1.2.13, 10). Despite Julia’s argument that Proteus “hath never moved” her, Lucetta “think[s] him best” and explains that “fire that’s closest kept burns most of all” (Two Gentlemen 1.2.27, 21, 30). This metaphor, contrasted against Lucetta’s frequent criticism of herself as an “unworthy body,” points not only to her wisdom, but also to her ability to discern an individual’s character and motivations (Two Gentlemen 1.2.18). Lucetta’s opinion on Proteus is enough to have Julia “cast [her] love on him” despite previous reservations, nodding to Lucetta’s position of power in her relationship with Julia (Two Gentlemen 1.2.25). Indeed, Lucetta surpasses Julia in her understanding of love and relationships; a tension is thus established between the two women, one that Julia will overcome once she marries and subsequently overtakes Lucetta in romantic knowledge. In using Lucetta in this way, Shakespeare subtly indicates that the climax of the play will abandon Lucetta, circumscribing her to an ultimately temporary and functional role. This tension is heightened by the fact that Lucetta serves as a convenient foil for Julia, observed when Lucettapretends to be Julia in order to receive the love letter from Proteus. This scene establishes that Lucetta is of a similar age and appearance to Julia,, but of a lower rank. Lucetta seems to re-imagine herself as Julia when consulted about the potential suitors: she states “were I you” and then proceeds to give Julia advice (Two Gentlemen 1.2.11). This sets up a clear distinction between Julia and Lucetta as categorically separate. The pronouns “I” versus “you,” which juxtaposes the relationship between Julia and Lucetta, who mirror each other, promoting a deeper understanding of either character.
In The Merchant of Venice, the audience observes a conversation redolent of Julia and Lucetta’s conversation, Nerissa and Portia discuss whom Portia should marry. This conversation differs from Julia and Lucetta’s conversation, however, as Portia is far more vocal and astute in her observations on the men; she does not require Nerissa to tell her what to think. There is an echo of The Two Gentlemen of Verona in Portia’s request for Nerissa to “overname them. And as thou / namest them, I will describe them,” recalling yet reversing Lucetta’s request that Julia“repeat [the suitors’] names” so that Lucetta might comment on them (Merchant 1.2.36-36; Two Gentlemen 1.2.6). This inversion of roles speaks to a more profound relationship between Nerissa and Portia, one where Nerissa is more of a companion and a friend who functions in parallel to Portia. Portia remarks, for instance, on the “unmannerly sadness” of Count Palatine and Monsieur le Bon’s “bad habit of frowning,” and Nerissa responds with reassurance that Portia “need not fear,” and that she will not end up “married to a sponge” (Merchant 1.2.50, 59, 102, 99). Despite Portia doing most of the talking here, it is clear that she values the opinion of Nerissa whom, later on, Portia claims “teaches me what to believe” (Merchant 5.1.223). This relationship is one of reciprocity, where the women balance one another in their opinions and actions, while Lucetta must direct Julia’s attention to Proteus, Nerissa simply affirms that Bassanio is “worthy” (Merchant 1.2.121). Julia does not possess any thoughts of her own, Lucetta as “the table wherein all [her] thoughts / Are visibly character’d and engraved” ( Two Gentlemen 2.7.4-5). Likening Lucetta to a “table,” an object at which to study, further exemplifies her role as a teacher, rather than a friend, and also alludes to her being an individual whose “character” is limited and finite. The equalization of these female characters creates an alliance between Portia and Nerissa as one of equality and intimacy.
Scholarship argues that “the women attendants in Shakespeare seem to fall into two groups: those who […] are ladies, and those who […] only aspire to that enviable position” (Guido 298). If one takes this to be true, one can separate Lucetta and Nerissa into these two categories. Nerissa is presented alongside Portia as a potential wife and cast into the role of a “lady,” implying that her life extends beyond her employment as Portia’s waiting woman. Shakespeare affords her personal aspirations and her own capacity for love. Nerissa is present when the Prince of Arragon and Bassanio attempt to win Portia, and rejoices when Bassiano picks the correct casket, crying out “Good joy, good joy, my lord and lady!” (Merchant 3.2.192). Furthermore, once the main marriage plot of Portia and Bassanio has been satisfied, Gratiano confesses his love for Nerissa almost immediately, saying to Bassiano that “you loved, I loved […] Your fortune stood upon the casket there, / And so did mine too” (Merchant 3.2.203-206). In his appeal, Gratiano highlights the similarities between his newfound love for Nerissa and Bassanio’s love for Portia; in doing so, Gratiano also highlights the similarities between Nerissa and Portia themselves. Nerissa’s relationship with Gratiano continues to operate in tandem with Portia’s relationship with Bassanio; Portia gives her love a ring, and makes him swear never to give it away, Similarly, Nerissa gives Gratiano a ring under the same pretences, and both women attempt to trick their husbands into giving away the rings.
These examples of camaraderie distinctly contrast with the extent of Lucetta and Julia’s relationship. When Julia debates whether or not she should “undertake / A journey to [her] loving Proteus,” Lucetta attempts to dissuade her, explaining that “the way is wearisome and long!” and that she “better forbear till Proteus make return” (Two Gentlemen 2.7.6-7, 8, 14). When Lucetta finds excuses to prevent Julia from going, it is unclear whether Lucetta does so to protect Julia, or whether she has an ulterior motive, “aspir[ing]to that enviable position”—if she loses Julia, she essentially loses herself (Guido 298) This directly diverges from Nerissa’s enthusiasm and encouragement of Portia and Bassanio and points to Lucetta’s role as someone who need to prevent Julia’s passion from “burn[ing] above the bounds of reason,” rather than arouse and drive her passions further, as Nerissa does, much like a friend (Two Gentlemen 2.7.23). This difference is further exhibited in the fact that Lucetta does not accompany Julia on her trip, whilst Nerissa is quick to go along with Portia’s plan to disguise themselves as men and trick their husbands. Lucetta simply provides Julia with the clothes of a “well-reputed page” as she attempts to disguise herself as a man in order to travel to Proteus; in contrast, Nerissa joins Portia in adorning the “habit” of “young men” in order to dress up as Balthazar and his Clerk (Two Gentlemen 2.7.43; Merchant 3.4.63). Nerissa participates in what is potentially a dangerous plan partially because she wants to support and assist Portia on her journey, but also because she and Portia share similar approaches to their newfound love interests. Shakespeare further authenticates the sincerity of their friendship when he contrasts their friendship against the speed with which Gratiano exposes his friend who also “gave his ring away” in an attempt to make himself look less guilty (5.1.192). This betrayal is at odds with Nerissa’s unwavering devotion to her friend, who is quick to replicate Portia’s threat to “have that doctor for [her] bedfellow,” turning to Gratiano and saying “And I his clerk” (Merchant 5.1.249, 250). This statement would be especially controversial for a waiting-woman who is supposed to set an example for a young lady. In this way, Nerissa de-aligns herself from the role of responsibility that comes from her employed position, doing so to act in accordance with Portia. By way of contrast, Lucetta strictly prescribes to the outlines of her job, her loyalties lie with Julia’s parents, who expect Lucetta to prime Julia into becoming a suitable wife. In placing these two characters in direct temporal comparison with one another, Shakespeare comments on the social hierarchy of the Elizabethan period by recreating the changing possibilities for this subtle dynamic between ladies and ladies-in-waiting within the microcosm of a play.
Shakespeare further displays the distinction between these two relationships in the structure of dialogue in both texts. When conversing with Julia, Lucetta speaks in broken verse, oscillating between regular iambs such as “To plead for love deserves more fee than hate” and “As of a knight well-spoken, neat, and fine; / But, were I you, he never should be mine” and then restoring back to regular prose as seen in “I think best loves you” (Two Gentlemen 1.2.50, 10-11, 28). In this way, Shakespeare reasserts the power imbalance between the two women, as Lucetta must regularly check herself and the way she speaks when addressing essentially her superior, despite the fact that the women are of a similar age. In contrast, Nerissa speaks exclusively in verse, like many other characters of a lower rank in Shakespeare’s plays. Juxtaposing Julia and Lucetta with Nerissa and Portia in this way shows how the friendship of Portia and Nerissa is all the more authentic and obvious—Portia continues to treat Nerissa as a friend, despite their class difference.
One can further imagine Lucetta as the precursor for Nerissa through analysis of the character arc attributed to either character. Once Lucetta has equipped Julia with all that she needs to disguise herself as a man, Julia leaves, and Lucetta’s last line is “pray heav’n he prove so when you come to him” (Two Gentlemen 2.7.79). Lucetta’s final words are proleptic—they foreshadow what is to come—implying that it will take a divine act in order for Proteus to remain as “sincere” and “pure” as he was when he left (Two Gentlemen 2.7.76, 77). The verb “pray” implies a certain powerlessness that Lucetta now feels as she is separated from Julia both physically and mentally—all she can do now is pray. It is clear, however, that Lucetta’s role and job as a waiting-woman has been fulfilled, and she is not mentioned again either directly or indirectly for the remainder of the play. Julia leaves “all that is [hers] at [Lucetta’s] dispose” including her “goods […] lands […] and reputation” (Two Gentlemen 2.7.86, 87) This “dispos[al]” of the land into Lucetta’s hands indicates an ambivalence in the story as to whether Julia intends to return, and also implies that although Julia’s life extends beyond Lucetta’s scope and presence, Lucetta’s life will continue to be within Julia’s domain and Lucetta will even take on Julia’s reputation; as such, Lucetta will continue to be defined by others based on her occupation.
Nerissa’s ending is decidedly different.ot only does she go on to be married to Gratiano andtherefore guaranteed a continued relationship with Portia, but she also gains a far more centralised role in the conclusion of the play. The final line of the play is spoken by Gratiano: “while I live, I’ll fear no other thing / So sore, as keeping safe Nerissa’s ring” (Merchant 5.1.328-329). It is clear that Gratiano’s priorities lie in maintaining and safe-guarding both his marriage with Nerissa, as well as their sexual intimacy, with the ring being both emblematic of marriage and engagement as well as having “traditional connotations of cuckoldry” (Parten 136). Despite Portia assuring the men that they will go inside and “answer all things faithfully,” Gratiano remains anxious that he will have to stand on guard for sexual advances from other men for the entirety of his marriage to Nerissa (Merchant 5.1.321). It seems that Nerissa’s desirability and power over men has surpassed that of Portia, whom men tried so hard to court, and that she will retain this agency even after the closure of the play. The fact that Nerissa’s name occupies the last line solidifies her significance in the story, as this sentence usually serves as an affective reflection on the story that has just unfolded, and is typically said by the individual of the highest status. Gratiano’s appropriation of this position nods to Nerissa’s undeniable presence in the scene, highlighting both her importance in facilitating the betrothal between Portia and Bassanio, but also her interiority as a person, rather than an occupation, like Lucetta.
By analysing the conversations between Julia and Lucetta against those of Nerissa and Portia, we gain an appreciation for the trope of ladies and their waiting-women as a distinct variable in Shakespeare’s plays that shifts and alters alongside his writing style and progression as a playwright. Lucetta materialises as a one-dimensional character when placed in opposition to Nerissa, functioning as a stock-character type whom Shakespeare essentially abandons once she has satisfied her primary purpose. This is strikingly different from Nerissa, whose role goes far beyond that of her conventional character type, thus simultaneously broadening the possibilities for women in the Elizabethan period as well as allowing more for a greater understanding of the alliances that take place among the upper-class social milieu.
Works Cited
Draper, J. “Shakespeare’s Ladies-In-Waiting.” Neophilologus: An International Journal of Modern and Mediaeval Language and Literature, vol. 49, no. 1, 1965, pp. 255-262.
Schavrien, Judy. “Shakespeare’s Late Style and Renewal through the Feminine: A Full Spectrum, All-Quadrant Approach.” Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, vol 40, no. 2, 2008, pp. 199-220.
Guido, Angelina. “The Humour of Juliet’s Nurse.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 17, no. 3, 1945. pp. 297-393.
Parten, Anne. “Re-Establishing Sexual Order: The Ring Episode in The Merchant of Venice.” Women’s Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal, vol. 9, no. 2, 1982, pp. 145-155.
Shakespeare, William. The Merchant of Venice. The Norton Shakespeare, 3rd ed., edited by Stephen Greenblatt, W. W. Norton, 2016, pp. 1339-1393.
Shakespeare, William. The Two Gentlemen of Verona. The Norton Shakespeare, 3rd ed., edited by Stephen Greenblatt, W. W. Norton, 2016, pp. 132-180.